Congenital Heart Diseases in Children: Incidence, Risk Factors, Mortality
https://doi.org/10.15690/vsp.v16i2.1713
Abstract
Congenital heart diseases (CHD) — one of the most common malformations in children — remains the leading cause of death in the younger age group. The review presents the world statistics of incidence and mortality due to CHD; the reasons for variability of epidemiological data are considered. The association of CHD with defects of other organs and systems is discussed. The role of various risk factors in formation of CHD in fetus is showed.
About the Authors
Ekaterina V. Saperova
Ural State Medical University
Russian Federation
Ekaterinburg
Russian Federation
Ekaterinburg
Irina V. Vahlova
Уральский государственный медицинский университет
Russian Federation
Ekaterinburg
Russian Federation
Ekaterinburg
References
1. Mitchell SC, Korones SB, Berendes HW. Congenital heart disease in 56,109 births. Incidence and natural history. Circulation. 1971;43:323–332. doi: 10.1161/01.CIR.43.3.323.
2. Hoffman JI, Kaplan S. The incidence of congenital heart disease. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2002;39(12):1890–1900. doi: 10.1016/S0735-1097(02)01886-7.
3. Rao PS. Diagnosis and management of cyanotic congenital heart disease: part I. Indian J Pediatr. 2009;76(1):57–70. doi: 10.1007/s12098-009-0030-4.
4. Jenkins KJ, Correa A, Feinstein JA, et al. Noninherited risk factors and congenital cardiovascular defects: current knowledge: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association Council on Cardiovascular Disease in the Young: endorsed by the American Academy of Pediatrics. Circulation. 2007;115(23):2995–3014. doi: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.106.183216.
5. Rosamond W, Flegal K, Friday G, et al. Heart disease and stroke statistics — 2007 update. Circulation. 2007;115(5):e69–e171. doi: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.106.179918. Erratum in Circulation. 2007 Feb 6;115(5):e172. Circulation. 2010 Jul 6;122(1):e9. Kissela, Bret [corrected to Kissela, Brett].
6. Krasuski RA, Bashore TM. Congenital heart disease epidemiology in the United States: blindly feeling for the charging elephant. Circulation. 2016;134(2):110–113. doi: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.116.023370.
7. Mozaffarian D, Benjamin EJ, Go AS, et al. Heart Disease and Stroke Statistics-2016 Update: a report from the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2016;133(4):е38–360. doi: 10.1161/CIR.0000000000000350.
8. eurocat-network.eu [Internet]. Cases and prevalence (per 10,000 births) for all full member registries from 2010 to 2014 [cited 2017 Apr 19]. Available from: http://www.eurocat-network.eu/accessprevalencedata/prevalencetables.
9. Hoffman JI, Kaplan S, Liberthson RR. Prevalence of congenital heart disease. Am Heart J. 2004;147(3):425–439. doi: 10.1016/j.ahj.2003.05.003.
10. Becker S, Al Halees Z. First-cousin matings and congenital heart disease in Saudi Arabia. Community Genet. 1999;2(2–3):69–73. doi: 10.1159/000016189.
11. van der Linde D, Konings EE, Slager MA, et al. Birth prevalence of congenital heart disease worldwide: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2011;58(21):2241–2247. doi: 10.1016/j.jacc.2011.08.025.
12. Кардиология детского возраста / Под ред. Царегородцева А.Д., Белозерова Ю.М., Брегель Л.В. — М.: ГЭОТАР-Медиа; 2014. — 784 с. [Kardiologiya detskogo vozrasta. Ed by Tsaregorodtsev A.D., Belozerov Yu.M., Bregel' L.V. Moscow: GEOTAR-Media; 2014. 784 p. (In Russ).]
13. Marelli AJ, Mackie AS, Ionescu-Ittu R et al. Congenital heart disease in the general population: changing prevalence and age distribution. Circulation. 2007;115(2):163–172. doi: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.106.627224.
14. Клинические рекомендации по ведению детей с врожденными пороками сердца / Под ред. Бокерия Л.А. — М.: НЦССХ им. А.Н. Бакулева; 2014. — 342 с. [Klinicheskie rekomendatsii po vedeniyu detei s vrozhdennymi porokami serdtsa. Ed by Bokeriya L.A. Moscow: NCSSH im. A.N. Bakuleva; 2014. 342 p. (In Russ).]
15. Yang XY, Li XF, Lu XD, Liu YL. Incidence of congenital heart disease in Beijing, China. Chin Med J (Engl). 2009;122(10):1128–1132.
16. Bhardwaj R, Rai SK, Yadav AK, et al. Epidemiology of congenital heart disease in India. Congenit Heart Dis. 2015;10(5):437–446. doi: 10.1111/chd.12220.
17. Alenezi AM, Albawardi NM, Ali A, et al. The epidemiology of congenital heart diseases in Saudi Arabia: а systematic review. J Pub Health Epidemiol. 2015;7(7):232–240. doi: 10.5897/JPHE2015.0723.
18. Мутафьян О.А. Детская кардиология. Руководство. — М.: ГЭОТАР-Медиа; 2009. — 504 с. [Mutaf'yan OA. Detskaya kardiologiya. Rukovodstvo. Moscow: GEOTAR-Media; 2008. 504 p. (In Russ).]
19. bionocar.org [Internet]. British and Irish Network of Congenital Anomaly Researchers [cited 2017 Apr 19]. Available from: http://www.bionocar.org/.
20. phac-aspc.gc.ca [Internet]. Canadian Congenital Anomalies Surveillance Network [cited 2017 Apr 19]. Available from: http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/ccasn-rcsac/index-eng.php.
21. unsw.edu.au [Internet]. Australian Congenital Anomalies Monitoring System [cited 2017 Apr 19]. Available from: https://npesu.unsw.edu.au.
22. Минайчева Л.И. Генетико-эпидемиологическое исследование врожденных пороков развития в сибирских популяциях: мониторинг, медико-генетическое консультирование, диспансеризация: Дис. ... докт. мед. наук. — Томск; 2014. [Minaicheva LI. Genetiko-epidemiologicheskoe issledovanie vrozhdennykh porokov razvitiya v sibirskikh populyatsiyakh: monitoring, mediko-geneticheskoe konsul'tirovanie, dispanserizatsiya. [dissertation] Tomsk; 2014. (In Russ).] Доступно по: http://www.medgenetics.ru/UserFile/File/Doc/Diss_sovet/Minaycheva/Disser-Minaycheva.pdf. Ссылка активна на 19.04.2017.
23. icbdsr.org [Internet]. The International Clearinghouse for Birth Defects Surveillance and Research [cited 2017 Apr 19]. Available from: https://www.icbdsr.org.
24. Miller A, Riehle-Colarusso T, Alverson CJ, et al. Congenital heart defects and major structural noncardiac anomalies, Atlanta, Georgia, 1968 to 2005. J Pediatr. 2011;159(1):70–78. doi: 10.1016/j.jpeds.2010.12.051.
25. Hrusca A, Cainap S, Rachisan AL, et al. Congenital heart defects and associated comorbidities — 5 years of experience. HVM Bioflux. 2013;5(2):62–65.
26. Guser S, Ince T, Kale G, et al. Noncardiac malformations in congenital heart disease: a retrospective analysis of 305 pediatric autopsies. Turk J Pediatr. 2005;47(2):159–166.
27. Meberg A, Hals J, Thaulow E. Congenital heart defects — chromosomal anomalies, syndromes and extracardiac malformations. Acta Paediatr. 2007;96(8):1142–1145. doi: 10.1111/j.1651-2227.2007.00381.x.
28. Hartman RJ, Rasmussen SA, Botto LD, et al. The contribution of chromosomal abnormalities to congenital heart defects: a population-based study. Pediatr Cardiol. 2011;32(8):1147–1157. doi: 10.1007/s00246-011-0034-5.
29. Asim A, Agarwal S, Panigrahi I. Frequency of congenital heart defects in indian children with down syndrome. Austin J Genet Genomic Res. 2016;3(1):1–3.
30. Czeizel AE, Dudas I, Vereczkey A, Banhidy F. Folate deficiency and folic acid supplementation: the prevention of neural-tube defects and congenital heart defects. Nutrients. 2013;5(11):4760-4775. doi: 10.3390/nu5114760.
31. Feng Y, Wang S, Chen R, et al. Maternal folic acid supplementation and the risk of congenital heart defects in offspring: a meta-analysis of epidemiological observational studies. Sci Rep. 2015;5:8506. doi: 10.1038/srep08506.
32. Goh YI, Bollano E, Einarson TR, Koren G. Prenatal multivitamin supplementation and rates of congenital anomalies: а metaanalysis. J Obstet Gynaecol Can. 2006;28(8):680–689. doi: 10.1016/S1701-2163(16)32227-7.
33. Rouse B, Azen C. Effect of high maternal blood phenylalanine on offspring congenital anomalies and developmental outcome at ages 4 and 6 years: the importance of strict dietary control preconception and throughout pregnancy. J Pediatr. 2004;144(2):235–239. doi: 10.1016/j.jpeds.2003.10.062.
34. Correa A, Botto L, Liu Y, et al. Do multivitamin supplements attenuate the risk for diabetes-associated birth defects? Pediatrics. 2003;111(5 pt 2):1146–1151.
35. Oyen N, Diaz LJ, Leirgul E, et al. Prepregnancy diabetes and offspring risk of congenital heart disease: a nationwide cohort study. Circulation. 2016;133(23):2243–2253. doi: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.115.017465.
36. Botto LD, Lynberg MC, Erickson JD. Congenital heart defects, maternal febrile illness, and multivitamin use: a populationbased study. Epidemiology. 2001;12(5):485–490. doi: 10.1097/00001648-200109000-00004.
37. Botto L, Panichello JD, Browne ML, et al. Congenital heart defects after maternal fever. Am J Obstetrics Gynecology. 2014;210(4):359. e1–359.e11. doi: 10.1016/j.ajog.2013.10.880.
38. Brite J, Laughon SK, Troendle J, Mills J. Maternal overweight and obesity and risk of congenital heart defects in offspring. Int J Obes (Lond). 2014;38(6):878–882. doi: 10.1038/ijo.2013.244.
39. fda.gov [Internet]. The pregnancy and lactation labeling rule. [cited 2017 Apr 22]. Available from: https://www.fda.gov/downloads/aboutfda/workingatfda/fellowshipinternshipgraduate
40. facultyprograms/pharmacystudentexperientialprogramcder/ucm495961.pdf.
41. Law R, Bozzo P, Koren G, Einarson A. FDA pregnancy risk categories and the CPS: do they help or are they a hindrance? Can Fam Physician. 2010;56(3):239–241.
42. Geiger JM, Baudin M, Saurat JH. Teratogenic risk with etretinate and acitretin treatment. Dermatology. 1994;189(2):109–116. doi: 10.1159/000246811.
43. Botto LD, Loffredo C, Scanlon KS, et al. Vitamin A and cardiac outflow tract defects. Epidemiology. 2001;12(5):491–496. doi: 10.1097/00001648-200109000-00005.
44. Cooper WO, Hernandez-Diaz S, Arbogast PG, et al. Major congenital malformations after first-trimester exposure to ACE inhibitors. N Engl J Med. 2006;354(23):2443–2451. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa055202.
45. Molgaard-Nielsen D, Pasternak B, Hviid A. Use of oral fluconazole during pregnancy and the risk of birth defects. N Engl J Med. 2013;369(9):830–839. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1301066.
46. Hernandez-Diaz S, Werler MM, Walker AM, Mitchell AA. Folic acid antagonists during pregnancy and the risk of birth defects. N Engl J Med. 2000;343(22):1608–1614. doi: 10.1056/NEJM200011303432204.
47. Czeizel AE, Rockenbauer M, Sorensen HT, Olsen J. The teratogenic risk of trimethoprim-sulfonamides: a population based case-control study. Reprod Toxicol. 2001;15(6):637–646. doi: 10.1016/s0890-6238(01)00178-2.
48. Ericson A, Kallen BA. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs in early pregnancy. Reprod Toxicol. 2001;15(4):371–375. doi: 10.1016/s0890-6238(01)00137-x.
49. Wilson PD, Loffredo CA, Correa-Villasenor A, Ferencz C. Attributable fraction for cardiac malformations. Am J Epidemiol. 1998;148(5):414–423. doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a009666.
50. Van Gelder MHJ, Roeleveld N, Nordeng H. Exposure to nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs during pregnancy and the risk of selected birth defects: a prospective cohort study. PLoS One. 2011;6(7):e22174. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone. 0022174.
51. Ferencz C, Correa-Villasenor A, Loffredo CA, Wilson PD. Genetic and environmental risk factors of major cardiovascular malformations: the Baltimore-Washington Infant Study: 1981–1989. Armonk, NY: Futura Publishing Co Inc.; 1998. 463 p.
52. Yang J, Qiu H, Qu P, et al. Prenatal alcohol exposure and congenital heart defects: a meta-analysis. PLoS One. 2015;10(6):e0130681. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0130681.
53. Meyer KD, Zhang L. Short- and long-term adverse effects of cocaine abuse during pregnancy on the heart development. Ther Adv Cardiovasc Dis. 2009;3(1):7–16. doi: 10.1177/1753944708099877.
54. Shaw GM, Malcoe LH, Lammer EJ, Swan SH. Maternal use of cocaine during pregnancy and congenital cardiac anomalies. J Pediatr. 1991;118(1):167–168. doi: 10.1016/s0022-3476(05)81888-8.
55. Kuehl KS, Loffredo C. Risk factors for heart disease associated with abnormal sidedness. Teratology. 2002;66(5):242–248. doi: 10.1002/tera.10099.
56. Williams LJ, Correa A, Rasmussen S. Maternal lifestyle factors and risk for ventricular septal defects. Birth Defects Res A Clin Mol Teratol. 2004;70:59–64. doi: 10.1002/bdra.10145.
57. Alverson CJ, Strickland MJ, Gilboa SM, Correa A. Maternal smoking and congenital heart defects in the Baltimore-Washington Infant Study. J Pediatr. 2011;127(3):e647–e653. doi: 10.1542/peds.2010–1399.
58. Shaw GM, Nelson V, Iovannisci DM, et al. Maternal occupational chemical exposures and biotransformation genotypes as risk factors for selected congenital anomalies. Am J Epidemiol. 2003; 157(6):475–484. doi: 10.1093/aje/kwg013.
59. Dolk H, Nichols R. Evaluation of the impact of Chernobyl on the prevalence of congenital anomalies in 16 regions of Europe: EUROCAT Working Group. Int J Epidemiol. 1999;28(5):941–948. doi: 10.1093/ije/28.5.941.
60. Miller A, Riehle-Colarusso T, Siffel C, et al. Maternal age and prevalence of isolated congenital heart defects in an urban area of the United States. Am J Med Genet A. 2011;155A(9):2137–2145. doi: 10.1002/ajmg.a.34130.
61. Carmichael SL, Shaw GM. Maternal life event stress and congenital anomalies. Epidemiology. 2000;11(1):30–35. doi: 10.1097/00001648-200001000-00008.
62. Su XJ, Yuan W, Huang GY, et al. Paternal age and offspring congenital heart defects: a national cohort study. PLoS One. 2015;10(3):e0121030. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0121030.
63. Ewing CK, Loffredo CA, Beaty TH. Paternal risk factors for isolated membranous ventricular septal defects. Am J Med Genet. 1997;71(1):42–46. doi: 10.1002/(sici)1096-8628(19970711)71:1<42::aid-ajmg8>3.3.co;2-a.
64. Oyen N, Poulsen G, Boyd HA, et al. Recurrence of congenital heart defects in families. Circulation. 2009;120(4):295–301. doi: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.109.857987.
65. Becker SM, Al Halees Z, Molina C, Paterson RM. Consanguinity and congenital heart disease in Saudi Arabia. Am J Med Genet. 2001;99(1):8–13. doi: 10.1002/1096-8628(20010215)99:1<8::aidajmg1116>3.0.co;2-u.
66. Herskind AM, Almind Pedersen D, Christensen K. Increased prevalence of congenital heart defects in monozygotic and dizygotic twins. Circulation. 2013;128(11):1182–1188. doi: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.113.002453.
67. cdc.gov [Internet]. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health Statistics. Mortality multiple cause microdata files, 2013: public-use data file and documentation: NHLBI tabulations [cited 2017 Apr 19]. Available from: http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data_access/Vitalstatsonline.htm#Mortality_Multiple.
68. Oster ME, Lee KA, Honein MA, et al. Temporal trends in survival among infants with critical congenital heart defects. Pediatrics. 2013;131(5):e1502–1508. doi: 10.1542/peds.2012–3435.
69. Lindberg HL. Pediatric cardiac surgery and safety, in the past and in the future. Prog Pediatr Cardiol. 2012;33(1):11–13. doi: 10.1016/j.ppedcard.2011.12.002.
70. sts.org [Internet]. The Society of Thoracic Surgeons (STS) national database: Congenital Heart Surgery Database participants [cited 2017 Mar 29]. Available from: http://www.sts.org/sites/default/files/documents/congenitalMap_2.pdf.
71. Khairy P, Ionescu-Ittu R, Mackie AS. Changing mortality in congenital heart disease. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2010;56(14): 1149–1157. doi: 10.1016/j.jacc.2010.03.085.
72. Gilboa SM, Salemi JL, Nembhard WN, et al. Mortality resulting from congenital heart disease among children and adults in the United States, 1999 to 2006. Circulation. 2010;122(22): 2254–2263. doi: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.110.947002.
Review
For citations:
Saperova E.V., Vahlova I.V. Congenital Heart Diseases in Children: Incidence, Risk Factors, Mortality. Current Pediatrics. 2017;16(2):126-133. (In Russ.) https://doi.org/10.15690/vsp.v16i2.1713
Views:
3939
Email this article 
